Literature: an Introduction to Reading and Writing Pdf

Written piece of work of fine art

The Tale of Genji, Beowulf, Epic of Gilgamesh, Pāli Canon, The Grapes of Wrath, Things Autumn Apart, War and Peace, Ane Thou and One Nights, Cien Años de Soledad, Dresden Codex, Xiping Stone Classics

Literature broadly is whatsoever collection of written work, just it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, particularly prose fiction, drama, and poetry.^[1] In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed.^[2] Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political role.

Literature, every bit an fine art grade, tin too include works in various non-fiction genres, such equally biography, diaries, memoir, letters, and the essay. Within its wide definition, literature includes not-fictional books, manufactures or other printed information on a particular discipline.^{[3] [four]}

Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammer," originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera "letter of the alphabet".^[5] In spite of this, the term has as well been applied to spoken or sung texts.^{[6] [7]} Developments in print engineering take allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, which now includes electronic literature.

Literature is classified according to whether it is poetry, prose or drama, and such works are categorized according to historical periods, or their adherence to certain aesthetic features, or genre.

Definitions [edit]

Definitions of literature have varied over time.^[8] In Western Europe, prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing literature can be seen every bit returning to older, more inclusive notions, so that cultural studies, for instance, include, in addition to canonical works, popular and minority genres. The word is also used in reference not-written works: to "oral literature" and "the literature of preliterate civilization".

A value judgment definition of literature considers it as consisting solely of high quality writing that forms role of the belles-lettres ("fine writing") tradition.^[nine] An example of this in the (1910–11) Encyclopædia Britannica that classified literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing".^[ten]

History [edit]

Oral literature [edit]

The use of the term "literature" here is a little problematic because of its origins in the Latin littera, "letter," essentially writing. Alternatives such as "oral forms" and "oral genres" accept been suggested just the word literature is widely used.^[11]

Oral literature is an ancient human tradition plant in "all corners of the world".^[12] Modernistic archaeology has been unveiling show of the man efforts to preserve and transmit arts and cognition that depended completely or partially on an oral tradition, across various cultures:

The Judeo-Christian Bible reveals its oral traditional roots; medieval European manuscripts are penned by performing scribes; geometric vases from archaic Greece mirror Homer'due south oral style. (...) Indeed, if these last decades of the millennium have taught us annihilation, information technology must be that oral tradition never was the other nosotros accused information technology of existence; it never was the primitive, preliminary technology of communication we thought it to exist. Rather, if the whole truth is told, oral tradition stands out every bit the single most dominant chatty technology of our species equally both a historical fact and, in many areas still, a contemporary reality.^[12]

The earliest poesy is believed to have been recited or sung, employed as a style of remembering history, genealogy, and police.^[13]

In Asia, the transmission of sociology, mythologies too every bit scriptures in ancient Republic of india, in different Indian religions, was past oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques.^[xiv]

The early on Buddhist texts are too more often than not believed to be of oral tradition, with the first by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such equally the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is also consequent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without existence written downwards.^{[ commendation needed ]} According to Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling information technology a "parallel products of a literate society".^{[ citation needed ]}

Australian Ancient culture has thrived on oral traditions and oral histories passed down through thousands of years. In a study published in February 2020, new evidence showed that both Budj Bim and Tower Colina volcanoes erupted betwixt 34,000 and 40,000 years ago.^[15] Significantly, this is a "minimum age constraint for human presence in Victoria", and also could be interpreted as evidence for the oral histories of the Gunditjmara people, an Aboriginal Australian people of south-western Victoria, which tell of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in existence.^[16] An axe found underneath volcanic ash in 1947 had already proven that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower Hill.^[15]

All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely so.^[17] Homer's ballsy poesy, states Michael Gagarin, was largely composed, performed and transmitted orally.^[18] As folklores and legends were performed in forepart of distant audiences, the singers would substitute the names in the stories with local characters or rulers to give the stories a local flavour and thus connect with the audience, but making the historicity embedded in the oral tradition as unreliable.^[19] The lack of surviving texts about the Greek and Roman religious traditions have led scholars to assume that these were ritualistic and transmitted as oral traditions, but some scholars disagree that the complex rituals in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were an sectional product of an oral tradition.^[xx]

Writing systems are not known to accept existed among Native North Americans before contact with Europeans. Oral storytelling traditions flourished in a context without the employ of writing to record and preserve history, scientific cognition, and social practices.^[21] While some stories were told for amusement and leisure, about functioned every bit applied lessons from tribal experience applied to immediate moral, social, psychological, and environmental bug.^[22] Stories fuse fictional, supernatural, or otherwise exaggerated characters and circumstances with real emotions and morals as a means of teaching. Plots ofttimes reverberate real life situations and may exist aimed at particular people known past the story'southward audition. In this manner, social force per unit area could exist exerted without directly causing embarrassment or social exclusion.^[23] For example, rather than yelling, Inuit parents might deter their children from wandering too close to the water's edge by telling a story about a sea monster with a pouch for children within its reach.^[24]

See too African literature#Oral literature

Oratory [edit]

Oratory or the art of public speaking "was for long considered a literary art".^[three] From Ancient Hellenic republic to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a cardinal role in Western education in grooming orators, lawyers, counsellors, historians, statesmen, and poets.^{[25] [note 1]}

Writing [edit]

Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human retention, and writing became a more undecayed method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.^[27] Though in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may accept already emerged because of the demand to record historical and environmental events. Subsequent innovations included more compatible, predictable, legal systems, sacred texts, and the origins of modern practices of scientific enquiry and knowledge-consolidation, all largely reliant on portable and easily reproducible forms of writing.

Early written literature [edit]

Aboriginal Egyptian literature,^[28] along with Sumerian literature, are considered the earth's oldest literatures.^[29] The main genres of the literature of ancient Egypt—didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and tales—were written almost entirely in poesy;^[xxx] Past the Old Kingdom (26th century BC to 22nd century BC), literary works included funerary texts, epistles and letters, hymns and poems, and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early on Middle Kingdom (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created.^[31]

Many works of early periods, even in narrative class, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such as the Sanskrit Panchatantra.200 BC – 300 Advert, based on older oral tradition.^{[32] [33]} Drama and satire also adult as urban culture provided a larger public audience, and afterwards readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to ballsy poetry) was ofttimes the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in Eastward Asia where songs were collected by the Chinese aristocracy as poems, the near notable existence the Shijing or Book of Songs (1046–c.600 BC), .^{[34] [35] [36]}

In ancient Prc, early on literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military science, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modernistic paper making and woodblock printing, produced the globe's first impress cultures.^[37] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Thought menses that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769‒269 BC).^[38] The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, every bit well as works of military scientific discipline (due east.g. Dominicus Tzu's The Art of War, c.fifth century BC)) and Chinese history (e.g. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, c.94 BC). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy accent on historiography, with oft very detailed court records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later on than 389 BC, and attributed to the blind fifth-century BC historian Zuo Qiuming.^[39]

In ancient Bharat, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and epic poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BC, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Historic period Republic of india.^{[40] [41]} The Vedas are amid the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) appointment to roughly 1500–grand BC, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, equally well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. thou‒500 BC, resulting in a Vedic menstruation, spanning the mid-2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Belatedly Bronze Age and the Iron Historic period.^[42] The menstruum between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the limerick and redaction of the two most influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata ^{[43] [44]} and the Ramayana,^[45] with subsequent redaction progressing down to the quaternary century AD. Other major literary works are Ramcharitmanas^[46] & Krishnacharitmanas.

The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean (c.1600–1100 BC), written in the Linear B syllabary on clay tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories, receipts, etc.); no existent literature has been discovered.^{[47] [48]} Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, the original decipherers of Linear B, state that literature virtually certainly existed in Mycenaean Greece,^[48] but it was either not written down or, if information technology was, information technology was on parchment or wooden tablets, which did not survive the devastation of the Mycenaean palaces in the twelfth century BC.^[48] Homer'due south, ballsy poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, are central works of ancient Greek literature. Information technology is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some betoken around the late eighth or early seventh century BC.^[49] Modernistic scholars consider these accounts legendary.^{[l] [51] [52]} Well-nigh researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.^[53] From antiquity until the nowadays day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilisation has been great, inspiring many of its nearly famous works of literature, music, art and film.^[54] The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on aboriginal Greek civilisation and education; to Plato, Homer was simply the 1 who "has taught Greece" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.^{[55] [56]} Hesiod's Works and Days (c.700 BC) and Theogony, are some of the primeval, and most influential, of ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC) authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC) and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) ) and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, just a express number of plays by iii authors still exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes (c. 446 – c. 386 BC) provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest grade of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.^[57]

The Hebrew religious text, the Torah, is widely seen as a production of the Persian period (539–333 BC, probably 450–350 BC).^[58] This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader of the Jewish community on its render from Babylon, a pivotal function in its promulgation.^[59] This represents a major source of Christianity's Bible, which has been a major influence on Western literature.^[60]

The showtime of Roman literature dates to 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek play.^[61] Literature in latin would flourish for the next half dozen centuries, and includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings.

The Qur'an (610 Advertizement to 632 Advertisement)^[62] ), the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arab language, and marked the beginning of Islamic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.^{[23] [63]} As Islam spread, the Quran had the event of unifying and standardizing Arabic.^[23]

Theological works in Latin were the dominant form of literature in Europe typically found in libraries during the Center Ages. Western Vernacular literature includes the Poetic Edda and the sagas, or heroic epics, of Iceland, the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, and the German Vocal of Hildebrandt. A afterward course of medieval fiction was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with stiff popular entreatment.^[64]

Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the European Renaissance as a result of the Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the press press^[65] around 1440, while the Medieval romance developed into the novel,^[66]

Publishing [edit]

Publishing became possible with the invention of writing, but became more applied with the invention of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes.

The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable type of earthenware c. 1045. Then c.1450, separately Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely available.

Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created earlier 1501 in Europe are known equally incunables or incunabula. "A man born in 1453, the yr of the fall of Constantinople, could look dorsum from his fiftieth yr on a lifetime in which about eight 1000000 books had been printed, more maybe than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."^[67]

Eventually, printing enabled other forms of publishing besides books. The history of modern newspaper publishing started in Germany in 1609, with publishing of magazines following in 1663.

University discipline [edit]

In England [edit]

In England in the late 1820s, growing political and social awareness, "peculiarly amongst the utilitarians and Benthamites, promoted the possibility of including courses in English literary written report in the newly formed London University". This further developed into the thought of the study of literature being "the ideal carrier for the propagation of the humanist cultural myth of a welleducated, culturally harmonious nation".^[68]

America [edit]

American Literature (academic discipline)

Women and literature [edit]

The widespread education of women was non common until the nineteenth century, and because of this literature until recently was generally male dominated.^[69]

George Sand was an thought. She has a unique place in our historic period.
Others are keen men ... she was a great woman.

Victor Hugo, Les funérailles de George Sand ^[seventy]

At that place are few women poets writing in English, whose names are remembered, until the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century some names that stand out are Emily Brontë, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Emily Dickinson (see American poesy). But while mostly women are absent from the European cannon of Romantic literature, there is one notable exception, the French novelist and memoirist Amantine Dupin (1804 – 1876) best known by her pen name George Sand.^{[71] [72]} One of the more popular writers in Europe in her lifetime,^[73] being more than renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s,^[74] Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European Romantic era. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) is the showtime major English adult female novelist, while Aphra Behn is an early female dramatist.

Nobel Prizes in Literature take been awarded betwixt 1901 and 2020 to 117 individuals: 101 men and 16 women. Selma Lagerlöf (1858 – 1940) was the outset woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, which she was awarded in 1909. Additionally, she was the kickoff woman to be granted a membership in The Swedish University in 1914.^[75]

Feminist scholars have since the twentieth century sought expand the literary catechism to include more women writers.

Children's literature [edit]

A separate genre of children's literature only began to emerge in the eighteenth century, with the evolution of the concept of childhood.^{[76] : x–xi} The earliest of these books were educational books, books on conduct, and simple ABCs—frequently decorated with animals, plants, and anthropomorphic letters.^[77]

Aesthetics [edit]

Literary theory [edit]

A key question of literary theory is "what is literature?" – although many contemporary theorists and literary scholars believe either that "literature" cannot exist defined or that information technology tin refer to whatever use of language.^[78]

Literary fiction [edit]

Literary fiction is a term used to depict fiction that explores any facet of the human condition, and may involve social commentary. It is often regarded as having more artistic merit than genre fiction, particularly the virtually commercially oriented types, merely this has been contested in recent years, with the serious study of genre fiction within universities.^[79]

The post-obit, past the award-winning British writer William Boyd on the brusk story, might be applied to all prose fiction:

[short stories] seem to respond something very deep in our nature as if, for the duration of its telling, something special has been created, some essence of our experience extrapolated, some temporary sense has been made of our mutual, turbulent journeying towards the grave and oblivion.^[80]

The very best in literature is annually recognized by the Nobel Prize in Literature, which is awarded to an writer from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the nigh outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning).^{[81] [82]}

The value of imaginative literature [edit]

Some researchers suggest that literary fiction tin can play a part in an private'south psychological development.^[83] Psychologists have also been using literature every bit a therapeutic tool.^{[84] [85]} Psychologist Hogan argues for the value of the fourth dimension and emotion that a person devotes to understanding a graphic symbol's situation in literature;^[86] that it can unite a big customs past provoking universal emotions, as well as allowing readers access to unlike cultures, and new emotional experiences.^[87] 1 study, for case, suggested that the presence of familiar cultural values in literary texts played an important impact on the functioning of minority students.^[88]

Psychologist Maslow's ideas aid literary critics understand how characters in literature reflect their personal culture and the history.^[89] The theory suggests that literature helps an individual's struggle for self-fulfilment.^{[ninety] [91]}

The influence of religious texts [edit]

This section needs expansion. You can assist past adding to information technology. (November 2020)

Religion has had a major influence on literature, through works like the Vedas, the Torah, the Bible,^[92] and the Qur'an.^{[93] [94] [95]}

The King James Version of the Bible has been called "the most influential version of the about influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language", "the most of import book in English language religion and culture", and "the most celebrated volume in the English language-speaking world"^{[ citation needed ]} - principally because of its literary style and widespread distribution. Prominent atheist figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version as being "a behemothic step in the maturing of English literature" and "a cracking work of literature", respectively, with Dawkins and so adding, "A native speaker of English language who has never read a discussion of the King James Bible is verging on the barbaric".^{[96] [97]}

Societies in which preaching has great importance, and those in which religious structures and regime have a nearly-monopoly of reading and writing and/or a censorship role, may impart a religious gloss to much of the literature those societies produce or retain - equally for example in the European Middle Ages. The traditions of close study of religious texts has furthered the development of techniques and theories in literary studies.

Types of literature [edit]

Poesy [edit]

Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its greater utilise of the aesthetic qualities of linguistic communication, including musical devices such equally assonance, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm, and by being prepare in lines and verses rather than paragraphs, and more than recently its utilize of other typographical elements.^{[98] [99] [100]} This distinction is complicated by diverse hybrid forms such as audio poetry, concrete poesy and prose poem,^[101] and more generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.^[102] Abram Lipsky refers to it every bit an "open undercover" that "prose is not distinguished from poetry by lack of rhythm".^[103]

Prior to the 19th century, poetry was usually understood to be something set up in metrical lines: "any kind of subject consisting of Rhythm or Verses".^[98] Perchance as a result of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics), "poetry" before the 19th century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical fine art.^{[ clarification needed ] [104]} Every bit a course it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works being composed within and sustained by an oral tradition;^{[105] [106]} hence information technology constitutes the earliest example of literature.

Prose [edit]

As noted higher up, prose by and large makes far less use of the aesthetic qualities of linguistic communication than poesy.^{[99] [100] [107]} All the same, developments in modern literature, including gratis verse and prose poetry take tended to blur the differences, and American poet T.S. Eliot suggested that while: "the distinction betwixt verse and prose is clear, the stardom between poetry and prose is obscure".^[108] There are verse novels, a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of verse rather than prose. Eugene Onegin (1831) by Alexander Pushkin is the most famous example.^[109]

On the historical evolution of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the example of ancient Greece] contempo scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an "invention" properly associated with the classical menstruation".^[110]

Latin was a major influence on the evolution of prose in many European countries. Especially important was the neat Roman orator Cicero.^[111] It was the lingua franca amidst literate Europeans until quite recent times, and the bully works of Descartes (1596 – 1650), Francis Salary (1561 – 1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677) were published in Latin. Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727).

Novel [edit]

Sculpture in Berlin depicting a stack of books on which are inscribed the names of great German writers.

A novel is a long fictional prose narrative. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the late 15th century, with the significant of "news"; it came to indicate something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction.^[112] The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott divers it every bit "a fictitious narrative in prose or poetry; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of homo events and the modern country of social club".^[113] Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo",^[114] indicates the proximity of the forms.^[115]

Although there are many historical prototypes, so-called "novels before the novel",^[116] the modern novel grade emerges late in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century.^[117] Initially subject field to much criticism, the novel has acquired a dominant position amongst literary forms, both popularly and critically.^{[115] [118] [119]}

Novella [edit]

The publisher Melville House classifies the novella as "besides brusk to be a novel, too long to exist a short story".^[120] Publishers and literary award societies typically consider a novella to be between 17,000 and xl,000 words.^[121]

Brusque story [edit]

A dilemma in defining the "brusk story" every bit a literary grade is how to, or whether one should, distinguish information technology from any brusk narrative and its contested origin,^[122] that include the Bible, and Edgar Allan Poe.^[123]

Graphic novel [edit]

Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of artwork, dialogue, and text.

Electronic literature [edit]

Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of digital works

Nonfiction [edit]

Common literary examples of nonfiction include, the essay; travel literature and nature writing; biography, autobiography and memoir; journalism; letters; journals; history, philosophy, economics; scientific, and technical writings.^{[4] [124]}

Nonfiction tin can fall inside the broad category of literature as "any collection of written work", only some works fall within the narrower definition "by virtue of the excellence of their writing, their originality and their general aesthetic and artistic merits".^[125]

Drama [edit]

Drama is literature intended for performance.^[126] The grade is combined with music and dance in opera and musical theatre (see libretto). A play is a written dramatic piece of work past a playwright that is intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises importantly dialogue between characters. A closet drama, by contrast, is written to be read rather than to exist performed; the meaning of which can be realized fully on the page.^[127] Nearly all drama took verse course until comparatively recently.

The primeval form of which there exists substantial knowledge is Greek drama. This developed as a performance associated with religious and borough festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical, or mythological themes,

In the twentieth century scripts written for non-phase media have been added to this form, including radio, television and picture.

Police [edit]

Law and literature [edit]

The law and literature movement focuses on the interdisciplinary connectedness between law and literature.

Copyright [edit]

Copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the sectional right to make copies of a creative piece of work, usually for a limited time.^{[128] [129] [130] [131] [132]} The creative work may be in a literary, creative, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a artistic work, but not the idea itself.^{[133] [134] [135]}

United Kingdom [edit]

Literary works have been protected past copyright constabulary from unauthorized reproduction since at least 1710.^[136] Literary works are divers by copyright law to mean "whatsoever work, other than a dramatic or musical piece of work, which is written, spoken or sung, and appropriately includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a estimator plan, (c) preparatory design fabric for a computer programme, and (d) a database."^[137]

Literary works are all works of literature; that is all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).^[138]

Usa [edit]

The copyright constabulary of the United States has a long and complicated history, dating back to colonial times. It was established as federal police with the Copyright Act of 1790. This act was updated many times, including a major revision in 1976.

European Marriage [edit]

The copyright law of the Eu is the copyright constabulary applicative within the European Union. Copyright police force is largely harmonized in the Union, although country to country differences exist. The body of law was implemented in the European union through a number of directives, which the member states need to enact into their national law. The main copyright directives are the Copyright Term Directive, the Information Lodge Directive and the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market. Copyright in the Marriage is furthermore dependent on international conventions to which the European Matrimony is a member (such as the TRIPS Agreement and conventions to which all Member States are parties (such as the Berne Convention)).

Copyright in communist countries [edit]

Copyright in Nippon [edit]

Japan was a party to the original Berne convention in 1899, so its copyright law is in sync with virtually international regulations. The convention protected copyrighted works for l years afterward the author'south death (or 50 years afterwards publication for unknown authors and corporations). However, in 2004 Japan extended the copyright term to 70 years for cinematographic works. At the end of 2018, as a upshot of the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations, the seventy yr term was practical to all works.^[139] This new term is not applied retroactively; works that had entered the public domain between 1999 and 2018 by expiration would remain in the public domain.

Censorship [edit]

Is a means employed past states, religious organizations, educational institutions, etc, to command what can exist portrayed, spoken, performed, or written.^[140] Generally such bodies attempt to ban works for political reasons, or because they deal with other controversial matters such as race, or sex.^[141]

A notorious example of censorship is James Joyce's novel Ulysses, which has been described past Russian-American novelist Vladimir Nabokov every bit a "divine piece of work of fine art" and the greatest masterpiece of 20th century prose.^[142] It was banned in the United States from 1921 until 1933 on the grounds of obscenity. Nowadays it is a central literary text in English literature courses, throughout the world.^[143]

Awards [edit]

There are numerous awards recognizing achievement and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically express in scope, commonly on: course, genre, language, nationality and output (e.k. for offset-fourth dimension writers or debut novels).^[144]

The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895,^[145] and is awarded to an writer on the basis of their trunk of piece of work, rather than to, or for, a item work itself.^{[note 2]} Other literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Hugo Accolade, Guardian First Book Award and the Franz Kafka Prize.

Encounter also [edit]

• Library
• Literary agent
• Literary element
• Literary mag
• Reading
• Rhetorical modes
• Scientific discipline fiction § Equally serious literature
• Vernacular literature

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject inside the field and has given rise to philological battles over its meaning in Ancient Greece.^[26]
2. ^ However, in some instances a work has been cited in the explanation of why the honor was given.

References [edit]

1. ^ "Literature: definition". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries.
2. ^ "Oral literature". Encyclopaedia Britannica. ; encounter likewise Homer.
3. ^ ^{a b} "literature | Definition, Characteristics, Genres, Types, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica.
4. ^ ^{a b} OED
5. ^ "literature (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved ix February 2014.
6. ^ Meyer, Jim (1997). "What is Literature? A Definition Based on Prototypes". Piece of work Papers of the Summertime Constitute of Linguistics and Academy of North Dakota Session. 41 (i). Retrieved eleven Feb 2014. ^{[ dead link ]}
7. ^ Finnegan, Ruth (1974). "How Oral Is Oral Literature?". Bulletin of the Schoolhouse of Oriental and African Studies. 37 (1): 52–64. doi:ten.1017/s0041977x00094842. JSTOR 614104. S2CID 190730645. (subscription required)
8. ^ Leitch et al., The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 28
9. ^ Eagleton 2008, p. 9.
10. ^ Biswas, Critique of Poetics, 538
11. ^ "Oral literature". Encyclopedia Britannica.
12. ^ ^{a b} John Miles Foley. "What'southward in a Sign" (1999). East. Anne MacKay (ed.). Signs of Orality. BRILL Academic. pp. 1–2. ISBN978-9004112735.
13. ^ Francis, Norbert (2017). Bilingual and multicultural perspectives on poesy, music and narrative: The science of art. Lanham Doc: Rowman and Littlefield.
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15. ^ ^{a b} Johnson, Sian (26 Feb 2020). "Study dates Victorian volcano that buried a human-made axe". ABC News . Retrieved 9 March 2020.
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Bibliography [edit]

• A.R. Biswas (2005). Critique of Poetics (vol. 2). Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN978-81-269-0377-1.
• Jeremy Black; Graham Cunningham; Eleanor Robson, eds. (2006). The literature of ancient Sumer. Oxford: OUP. ISBN978-0-19-929633-0.
• Cain, William Due east.; Finke, Laurie A.; Johnson, Barbara E.; McGowan, John; Williams, Jeffrey J. (2001). Vincent B. Leitch (ed.). The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism . Norton. ISBN978-0-393-97429-4.
• Eagleton, Terry (2008). Literary Theory: An Introduction (Ceremony, 2d ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-1-4051-7921-8.
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism . Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-43878-0.
• Hogan, P. Colm (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: University of Texas Printing, p. xx, ISBN978-0-292-72527-0
• Giraldi, William (2008). "The Novella's Long Life" (PDF). The Southern Review: 793–801. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2014. Retrieved fifteen Feb 2014.
• Goody, Jack (2006). "From Oral to Written: An Anthropological Breakthrough in Storytelling". In Franco Moretti (ed.). The Novel, Volume 1: History, Geography, and Culture. Princeton: Princeton UP. p. xviii. ISBN978-0-691-04947-2.
• Paris, B.J. (1986). Third Strength Psychology and the Study of Literature. Cranbury: Associated University Press.
• Preminger, Alex; et al. (1993). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics . US: Princeton University Printing. ISBN978-0-691-02123-2.
• Ross, Trevor (1996). "The Emergence of "Literature": Making and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth Century."" (PDF). ELH. 63 (2): 397–422. doi:10.1353/elh.1996.0019. S2CID 170813833. Retrieved ix February 2014.

Further reading [edit]

• Bonheim, Helmut (1982). The Narrative Modes: Techniques of the Brusk Story. Cambridge: Brewer. An overview of several hundred brusk stories.
• Gillespie, Gerald (January 1967). "Novella, nouvelle, novella, short novel? — A review of terms". Neophilologus. 51 (1): 117–127. doi:10.1007/BF01511303. S2CID 162102536.
• Wheeler, L. Kip. "Periods of Literary History" (PDF). Carson-Newman University. Retrieved 18 March 2014. Cursory summary of major periods in literary history of the Western tradition.

External links [edit]

• Project Gutenberg Online Library
• Net Book List similar to IMDb merely for books
• Net Archive Digital eBook Collection

milesafearighted.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature

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